2021/03/10
Improving Navigation Continuity Using Parallel Cascade Identification
By Umar Iqbal, Jacques Georgy, Michael J. Korenberg, and Aboelmagd Noureldin
To reliably navigate with fewer than four satellites, GPS pseudoranges needs to be augmented with measurements from other sensors, such as a reduced inertial sensor system or RISS. What is the best way to combine the RISS measurements with the GPS measurements? The classic approach is to integrate the measurements in a conventional tightly coupled Kalman filter. But in this month’s column, we look at how a mathematical procedure called parallel case identification can improve the Kalman filter’s job, when navigating with three, two, one, or even no GPS satellites.
INNOVATION INSIGHTS by Richard Langley
THREE, TWO, ONE, ZERO! Can you still navigate with just a GPS receiver when the number of tracked GPS satellites drops from four to none? As we know, pseu- doranges from a minimum of four satellites, preferably well spaced out in the sky, are required for three-dimensional positioning. That’s because there are four unknowns to estimate: the three position coordinates (latitude, longitude, and height) and the offset of the receiver clock from GPS System Time. If we had a stable clock in the receiver, then we could hold the clock offset constant and have 3D navigation with just three satellites. But for every 3 nanoseconds of clock drift, we will have about 1 meter of pseudorange error, which will lead to several meters of position error depend- ing on the receiver-satellite geometry. On the other hand, we could hold the height coor- dinate constant (viable for navigation over slowly changing topography or at sea) and estimate the horizontal coordinates and the receiver clock offset. So far, so good.
What if the number of tracked satellites then drops to two? We can now only esti- mate two unknowns. They could be the two horizontal coordinates, if we hold both the receiver clock offset and the height fixed. Any errors in those fixed values will propagate into the estimated horizontal coordinates but the resulting position errors might still be acceptable. Instead of holding the clock offset
fixed, we could assume a constant heading and compute the position along the assumed trajectory. However, navigation will rapidly deteriorate as soon as we make the first turn. And one satellite? We would have to make assumptions about the vehicle trajectory, the height, and the clock offset, with likely very poor results. And with no satellites? We might be able to navigate over a short period of time by “dead reckoning,” assuming a constant trajectory and speed, but the resulting positions will be educated guesses at best.
Clearly, if we want to reliably navigate with fewer than four satellites we need to augment the GPS pseudoranges with measurements from some other sensors. A common approach is to use inertial measurement units or IMUs. A complete IMU consists of three accelerometers and three gyroscopes, and small, cost-effective microelectromechanical IMUs are readily available. For land navigation, however, it can be advantageous to use a reduced inertial sensor system or RISS, consisting of one single-axis gyroscope, two accelerometers, and the vehicle speedometer. We can also make use of GPS pseudorange rates along with the pseudoranges.
But what is the best way to combine the RISS measurements with the GPS measurements? The classic approach is to integrate the measurements in a conventional tightly coupled Kalman filter. But in this month’s column, we look at how a mathematical procedure called parallel cascade identification can improve the Kalman filter’s job, when navigating with three, two, or even one GPS satellite.
The Global Positioning System meets the requirements for numerous navigational applications when there is direct line-of-sight (LOS) to four or more GPS satellites. Vehicular navigation systems and personal positioning systems may suffer from satellite signal blockage as LOS to at least four satellites may not be readily available when operating in urban landscapes with high buildings, underpasses, and tunnels, or in the countryside with thick forested areas. In such environments, a typical GPS receiver will have difficulties attaining and maintaining signal tracking, which causes GPS outages resulting in degraded or non-existent positioning information. Due to these well-known limitations of GPS, multi-sensor system integration is often employed. By integrating GPS with complementary motion sensors, a solution can be obtained that is often more accurate than that of GPS alone.
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) inertial sensors have enabled production of lower-cost and smaller-size inertial measurement units (IMUs) with little power consumption. A complete IMU is composed of three accelerometers and three gyroscopes. These MEMS sensors have composite error characteristics that are stochastic in nature and difficult to model. In traditional low-cost MEMS-based IMU/GPS integration, a few minutes of degraded GPS signals can cause position errors, which can reach several hundred meters. For full 3D land vehicle navigation, we had earlier proposed a low-cost MEMS-based reduced inertial sensor system (RISS) based on only one single-axis gyroscope, two accelerometers, and the vehicle odometer, and we have integrated this system with GPS. RISS mitigates several error sources in the full-IMU solution; moreover, RISS reduces system cost further due to the use of fewer sensors. Another enhancement can be achieved by using tightly coupled integration, which can provide GPS aiding for a navigation solution when the number of visible satellites is three or lower, removing the foremost requirement of loosely coupled integration, which is visibility of at least four satellites. GPS aiding during limited GPS satellite availability can improve the operation of the navigation system for tightly coupled systems. Thus, in our reseach, a Kalman filter (KF) is used to integrate low-cost MEMS-based RISS with GPS in a tightly coupled scheme.
The KF employed in tightly coupled RISS/GPS integration utilizes pseudoranges and pseudorange rates measured by the GPS receiver. The accuracy of the position estimates is highly dependent on the accuracy of the range measurements. The tightly coupled solutions presented in the literature assume that the pseudorange measurement, after correcting for ionospheric and tropospheric delays, satellite clock errors, and ephemeris errors, only have errors due to the receiver clock and white noise. These latter two are the only errors modeled inside the measurement model in the tightly coupled solutions presented in the literature. Experimental investigation of the GPS pseudoranges for vehicle trajectories in different areas and for different scenarios showed that, in addition, there are residual correlated errors. Since it has been experimentally proven that there are residual correlated errors in addition to white noise and receiver clock errors, we have proposed using a nonlinear system identification technique called parallel cascade identification (PCI) to model such correlated errors in pseudorange measurements.
We propose that the PCI model for the residual pseudorange errors be cascaded with a KF since this nonlinear model cannot be included inside the KF measurement model. The normal operation of a KF is as follows: the difference between the measured pseudorange and pseudorange rate from the mth GPS satellite and the corresponding RISS-predicted estimates of pseudorange and pseudorange rate are used as a measurement update for the KF integration, which computes the estimated RISS errors and corrects the mechanization output. We propose the use of a PCI module, where the role of PCI is to model the pseudorange residual errors. When GPS is available, estimated full 3D position, velocity, and attitude are obtained by integrating the MEMS-based RISS with GPS. In parallel, as a background routine, a PCI model is built for each visible satellite to model its pseudorange error. The actual pseudorange of each visible satellite is used as the input to the model; the target output is the error between the corrected pseudorange (calculated based on corrected receiver position from the integrated solution) and the actual pseudorange. This target output provides the reference output to build the PCI model of the pseudorange residual error. Dynamic characteristics between system input and output help to identify a nonlinear PCI model and the algorithm can then achieve a residual pseudorange error model.
When fewer than four satellites are visible, the identified parallel cascades for the remaining visible satellites will be used to predict the pseudorange errors for these satellites and correct the pseudorange values to be provided to the KF. This improvement of pseudorange measurements will result in a more accurate aiding for RISS, and thus more accurate estimates of position and velocities.
We examined the performance of the proposed technique by conducting road tests with real-life trajectories using a low-cost MEMS-based RISS. The ultimate check for the proposed system’s accuracy is during GPS signal degradation and blockage. This work presents both downtown scenarios with natural GPS degradation and scenarios with simulated GPS outages where the number of visible satellites was varied from three to zero. The results are examined and compared with KF-only tightly coupled RISS/GPS integration without pseudorange correction using a PCI module. This comparison clearly demonstrates the advantage of using a PCI module for correcting pseudoranges for tightly coupled integration.
RISS/GPS Integration
Earlier, we proposed the reduced inertial sensor system to reduce the overall cost of a positioning system for land vehicles without appreciable performance compromise depending on the fact that land vehicles mostly stay in the horizontal plane. It is the gyroscope technology that contributes the most both to the overall cost of an IMU and to the performance of the INS. In RISS mechanization, the heading (azimuth) angle is obtained by integrating the gyroscope measurement, ωz. Since this measurement includes the component of the Earth’s rotation as well as rotation of the local level frame on the Earth’s curved surface, these quantities are removed from the measurement before integration. Assuming relatively small pitch and roll angles for land vehicle applications, we can write the rate of change of the azimuth angle directly in the local level frame as:
(1)
where ωe is the Earth’s rotation rate, φ is the latitude, ve is the east velocity of the vehicle, h is the altitude of the vehicle and RN is the normal (prime vertical) radius of curvature of the vehicle’s position on the reference ellipsoid.
The two horizontal accelerometers can be employed for obtaining the pitch and roll angles of the vehicle. Thus, a 3D navigation solution can be achieved to boost the performance of the solution. When the vehicle is moving, the forward accelerometer measures the forward vehicle acceleration as well as the component due to gravity, g. To calculate the pitch angle, the vehicle acceleration derived from the odometer measurements, aod, is removed from the forward accelerometer measurements, fy. Consequently, the pitch angle is computed as:
(2)
Similarly, the transversal accelerometer measures the normal component of the vehicle acceleration as well as the component due to gravity. Thus, to calculate the roll angle, the transversal accelerometer measurement, fx, must be compensated for the normal component of acceleration. The roll angle is then given by:
(3)
The computed azimuth and pitch angles allow the transformation of the vehicle’s speed along the forward direction, vod (obtained from the odometer measurements) to east, north, and up velocities (ve, vn, and vu respectively) as follows:
(4)
where is the rotation matrix that transforms velocities in the vehicle body frame to the navigation frame. The east and north velocities are transformed and integrated to obtain position in geodetic coordinates (latitude, φ, and longitude, λ). The vertical component of velocity is integrated to obtain altitude, h. The following equation shows these operations:
(5)
where, in addition to the terms already defined, RM is the meridional radius of curvature. We have used the KF as the estimation technique for tightly coupled RISS/GPS integration in our approach. KF is an optimal estimation tool that provides a sequential recursive algorithm for the optimal least mean variance (LMV) estimation of the system states. In addition to its benefits as an optimal estimator, the KF provides real-time statistical data related to the estimation accuracy of the system states, which is very useful for quantitative error analysis. The filter generates its own error analysis with the computation of the error covariance matrix, which gives an indication of the estimation accuracy.
In tightly coupled RISS/GPS system architecture, instead of using the position and velocity solution from the GPS receiver as input for the fusion algorithm, raw GPS observations such as pseudoranges and Doppler shifts are used. The range measurement is usually known as a pseudorange due to the contamination of errors, such as atmospheric errors, as well as synchronization errors between the satellite and receiver clocks.
After correcting for the satellite clock error and the ionospheric and tropospheric errors, we can obtain a corrected pseudorange. The receiver clock error and the residual errors remaining in the corrected pseudorange, assumed as white Gaussian noise, are the only errors modeled inside the measurement model in the tightly coupled solutions presented in the literature. Experimental investigation of the GPS pseudoranges in trajectories in different areas and under different scenarios showed that the residual errors are not just white noise as assumed in the literature, but, in fact, are correlated errors. As the GPS observables are used to update the KF, a technique must be developed to adequately model these errors to improve the overall performance of the KF. We propose using PCI to model these correlated errors. A PCI module models these errors, and then provides corrections prior to sending the GPS pseudoranges to aid the KF during periods of GPS partial outages (when the number of visible satellites drops below four).
Parallel Cascade Identification
What is PCI? System identification is a procedure for inferring the dynamic characteristics between system input and output from an analysis of time-varying input-output data. Most of the techniques assume linearity due to the simplicity of analysis since nonlinear techniques make analysis much more complicated and difficult to implement than for the linear case. However, for more realistic dynamic characterization nonlinear techniques are suggested. PCI is a nonlinear system identification technique proposed by one of us [MJK]. This technique models the input/output behavior of a nonlinear system by a sum of parallel cascades of alternating dynamic linear (L) and static nonlinear (N) elements. The parallel array shown in Figure 1 can be built up one cascade at a time.
Figure 1. Block diagram of parallel cascade identification.
It has been proven that any discrete-time Volterra series with finite memory and anticipation can be uniformly approximated by a finite sum of parallel LNL cascades, where the static nonlinearities, N, are exponentials and logarithmic functions. [A Volterra series, named after the Italian mathematician and physicist Vito Volterra, is similar to the more familiar infinite Taylor series expansion of a function used, for example, in systems analysis, but the Volterra series can include system “memory” effects.] It has been shown that any discrete-time doubly finite (finite memory and order) Volterra series can be exactly represented by a finite sum of LN cascades where the N are polynomials. A key advantage of this technique is that it is not dependent on a white or Gaussian input, but the identified individual L and N elements may vary depending on the statistical properties of the input chosen. The cascades can be found one at a time and nonlinearities in the models are localized in static functions. This reduces the computation as higher order nonlinearities are approximated using higher degree polynomials in the cascades rather than higher order kernels in a Volterra series approximation.
The method begins by approximating the nonlinear system by a first such cascade. The residual (that is, the difference between the system and the cascade outputs) is treated as the output of a new nonlinear system, and a second cascade is found to approximate the latter system, and thus the parallel array can be built up one cascade at a time. Let yk(n) be the residual after fitting the kth cascade, with yo(n) = y(n). Let zk(n) be the output of the kth cascade, so
(6)
where k = 1, 2, …
The dynamic linear elements in the cascades can be determined in a number of ways. The method we have employed uses cross correlations of the input with the current residual. Best fitting of the current residuals was used to find the polynomial coefficients of the static nonlinearities. These resulting cascades are such that they drive the cross-correlations of the input with the residuals to zero. However, a few basic parameters have to be specified in order to identify a parallel cascade model, including the memory length of the dynamic linear element that begins each cascade, the degree of the polynomial static nonlinearity that follows the linear element (this polynomial is best fit to minimize the mean-square error (MSE) of the approximation of the residual), the maximum number of cascades allowable in the model, and a threshold based on a standard correlation test for determining whether a cascade’s reduction of the MSE justifies its addition to the model.
Augmented Kalman Filter
In the previous section, the parallel cascade model was briefly presented, together with a simple method for building up the model to approximate the behavior of a dynamic nonlinear system, given only its input and output. In order to apply PCI to 3D RISS/GPS integration, we propose the use of a KF-PCI module, where the role of PCI is to model the residual errors of GPS pseudoranges.
In full GPS coverage when four or more satellites are available to the GPS receiver, the KF integrated solution provides an adequate position benefiting from both GPS and RISS readings, and the PCI builds the model for the pseudorange errors for each visible satellite. The input of each PCI module is the pseudorange of the visible mth GPS satellite, and the reference output is the difference between the observed pseudorange and the estimated pseudorange from the corrected navigation solution.
The reference output has no corrections during full GPS coverage. It is only used to build the PCI model. Dynamic characteristics between system input and output help to achieve a residual pseudorange error model as shown in the Figure 2.
Figure 2. Block diagram of augmented KF-PCI module for pseudoranges during GPS availability.
During partial GPS coverage, when there are fewer than four satellites available, the PCI modules for all satellites cease training, and the available PCI model for each visible satellite is used to predict the corresponding residual pseudorange errors, as shown in Figure 3. The KF operates as usual, but in this instance the GPS observed pseudorange is corrected by the output of the corresponding PCI. The pre-built PCI models, only for the visible satellites during the partial outage, predict the corresponding residual pseudorange errors to obtain a correction. Thus, the corrected pseudorange can then be obtained.
During a full GPS outage, when no satellites are available, the KF operates in prediction mode and the PCI modules neither provide corrections nor operate in training mode.
FIGURE 3 Block diagram of augmented KF-PCI module for pseudoranges during limited availability of GPS.
Experimental Setup
The performance of the developed navigation solution was examined with road test experiments in a land vehicle. The experimental data collection was carried out using a full-size passenger van carrying a suite of measurement equipment that included inertial sensors, GPS receivers, antennae, and computers to control the instruments and acquire the data as shown in the Figure 4. The inertial sensors used in our tests are packaged in a MEMS-grade IMU. The specifications of the IMU are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. IMU specifications.
The vehicle’s forward speed readings were obtained from vehicle built-in sensors through the On-Board Diagnostics version II (OBD II) interface. The sample rate for the collection of speed readings was 1 Hz. The GPS receiver used in our integrated system was a high-end dual-frequency unit. Our results were evaluated with respect to a reference solution determined by a system consisting of another receiver of the same type, integrated with a tactical grade IMU.
This system provided the reference solution to validate the proposed method and to examine the overall performance during simulated GPS outages.
Several road test trajectories were carried out using the setup described above. The road test trajectory considered for this article was performed in the city of Kingston, Ontario, Canada, and is shown in Figure 5. This road test was performed for nearly 48 minutes of continuous vehicle navigation and a distance of around 22 kilometers. Ten simulated GPS outages of 60 seconds each were introduced in post-processing (they are shown as blue circles overlaid on the map in Figure 5) during good GPS availability. The trajectory was run four times with the simulated partial outages having three, two, one, and zero visible satellites, respectively. The case with no satellites seen is like a scenario that would occur in loosely coupled integration. The errors estimated by KF-PCI and KF-only solutions were evaluated with respect to the reference solution.
Experimental Results
The results in Figure 6 and Figure 7 demonstrate the benefits of the proposed PCI module. The main benefit of using PCI for pseudorange correction is the modeling capability, which enables correction of the raw GPS measurements. The benefit of more satellite availability can also be seen from these results. Figures 6 and 7 clearly show that both the average maximum position error and the average root-mean-square (RMS) position error are lower with the KF-PCI approach compared to the conventional KF, even when data from only one satellite is available.
Figure 6. Bar graph showing average maximum positional errors for all outages.
Figure 7. Bar graph for RMS positional errors for all outages.
To gain more insight about the performance of the proposed technique to enhance the aiding of the KF by correcting the pseudoranges, we can look at the results of KF-PCI and KF approaches with different numbers of satellites visible to the receiver for one of the artificial outages. Figure 8 shows a map featuring the different compared solutions during outage number 8. Eight solutions are presented for the cases of three, two, one, and zero satellites observed for the standard KF and KF with PCI. To get some idea of the vehicle dynamics during this outage, we can examine Figure 9, which depicts the forward speed of the vehicle as well as its azimuth angle as obtained from the reference solution. There is a significant variation in speed, with only a small variation in azimuth.
Figure 8. Performance of tightly coupled 3D-RISS during outage #8.
Figure 9. Vehicle dynamics (speed and azimuth) during GPS outage #8.
Figure 10 illustrates the performance differences between the KF-PCI and KF-only solutions for different numbers of satellites for this outage. Similar to Figure 7, Figure 10 shows the average RMS position differences between the KF-PCI and KF-only solutions and the reference solution (without the artificial outages). While the differences increase as the number of available satellites decreases, the accuracies may still be acceptable for many navigation purposes.
And while the differences between the KF-PCI and KF-only approaches for this particular outage are small, the KF-PCI approach consistently provides better accuracy.
Figure 10. Performance of PCI-KF (shades of blue for different number of satellites) and KF (shades of green for different number of satellites) of tightly coupled 3D-RISS during outage #8.
Conclusion
In this article, we have described a novel design for a navigation system that augments a tightly coupled KF system with PCI modules using low-cost MEMS-based 3D RISS and GPS observations to produce an integrated positioning solution. A PCI module is built for each satellite during good signal availability where the integrated solution presents a good position estimate. The output of each PCI module provides corrections to the GPS pseudoranges of the corresponding visible satellite during GPS partial outages, thereby decreasing residual errors in the GPS observations. This KF-PCI module was tested with real road-test trajectories and compared to a KF-only approach and was shown to improve the overall maximum position error during GPS partial outages.
Future work with PCI for modeling the residual pseudorange errors will consider replacing the KF with a particle filter to provide more robust integration and a consistent level of accuracy.
Acknowledgments
The research discussed in this article was supported, in part, by grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Geomatics for Informed Decisions (GEOIDE) Network of Centres of Excellence, and Defence Research and Development Canada. The equipment was acquired by research funds from the Directorate of Technical Airworthiness and Engineering Support, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, the Ontario Innovation Trust, and the Royal Military College of Canada. The article is based on the paper “Modeling Residual Errors of GPS Pseudoranges by Augmenting Kalman Filter with PCI for Tightly Coupled RISS/GPS Integration” presented at ION GNSS 2010, the 23rd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation held in Portland, Oregon, September 21–24, 2010.
Manufacturers
The test discussed in this article used a NovAtel Inc. OEM4 dual-frequency GPS receiver and a Crossbow Technology Inc., now Moog Crossbow IMU300CC-100 MEMS-grade IMU. The On-Board Diagnostics data was accessed with a Davis Instruments CarChip Pro data logger. The reference solutions were provided by a NovAtel G2 Pro-Pack SPAN unit, interfacing a NovAtel OEM4 receiver with a Honeywell HG1700 tactical grade IMU.
Umar Iqbal is a doctoral candidate at Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. He received a master’s of electrical engineering degree in integrated positioning and navigation systems from Royal Military College (RMC) of Canada, Kingston, in 2008. He also holds an M.Sc. in electronics engineering from the Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, Pakistan, and a B.Sc. in electrical engineering from the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. His research focuses on the development of enhanced performance navigation and guidance systems that can be used in several applications including car navigation.
Jacques Georgy received his Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering from Queen’s University in 2010. He received B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in computer and systems engineering from Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, in 2001 and 2007, respectively. He is working in positioning and navigation systems for vehicular, machinery, and portable applications with Trusted Positioning Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He is also a member of the Navigation and Instrumentation Research Group at RMC. His research interests include linear and nonlinear state estimation, positioning and navigation by inertial navigation system/global positioning system integration, autonomous mobile robot navigation, and underwater target tracking.
Michael J. Korenberg is a professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Queen’s University. He holds an M.Sc. (mathematics) and a Ph.D. (electrical engineering) from McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and has published extensively in the areas of nonlinear system identification and time-series analysis.
Aboelmagd Noureldin is a cross-appointment associate professor with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Queen’s University and the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at RMC. He is also the founder and leader of the Navigation and Instrumentation Research Group at RMC. He received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering and the M.Sc. degree in engineering physics from Cairo University, Giza, Egypt, in 1993 and 1997, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering from The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, in 2002. His research is related to artificial intelligence, digital signal processing, spectral estimation and de-noising, wavelet multiresolution analysis, and adaptive filtering, with emphasis on their applications in mobile multisensor system integration for navigation and positioning technologies.
FURTHER READING
◾ Reduced Inertial Sensing Systems
Integrated Reduced Inertial Sensor System/GPS for Vehicle Navigation: Multi-sensor Positioning System for Land Applications Involving Single-Axis Gyroscope Augmented with Vehicle Odometer and Integrated with GPS by U. Iqbal and A. Noureldin, published by VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, Saarbrucken, Germany, 2010.
“A Tightly-Coupled Reduced Multi- Sensor System for Urban Navigation” by T.B. Karamat, J. Georgy, U. Iqbal, and A. Noureldin in Proceedings of ION GNSS 2009, the 22nd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation, Savannah, Georgia, September 22–25, 2009, pp. 582–592.
“An Integrated Reduced Inertial Sensor System – RISS/GPS for Land Vehicle” by U. Iqbal, A.F. Okou, and A. Noureldin, in Proceedings of PLANS 2008, IEEE/ION Position Location and Navigation Symposium, Monterey, California, May 5–8, 2008, pp. 912– 922, doi: 0.1109/PLANS.2008.4570075.
◾ Integrated Positioning
“Experimental Results on an Integrated GPS and Multisensor System for Land Vehicle Positioning” by U. Iqbal, T.B. Karamat, A.F. Okou, and A. Noureldin in International Journal of Navigation and Observation, Hindawi Publishing Corporation, Vol. 2009, Article ID 765010, 18 pp., doi: 10.1155/2009/765010.
“Performance Enhancement of MEMS Based INS/GPS Integration for Low Cost Navigation Applications” by A. Noureldin, T.B. Karamat, M.D. Eberts, and A. El-Shafie in IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Vol. 58, No. 3, March 2009, pp. 1077–1096, doi: 10.1109/TVT.2008.926076.
Aided Navigation: GPS with High Rate Sensors by J.A. Farrell, published by McGraw-Hill, New York, 2008.
Global Positioning Systems, Inertial Navigation, and Integration by M.S. Grewal, L.R. Weill, and A.P. Andrews, 2nd ed., published by Wiley- Interscience, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2007.
“Continuous Navigation: Combining GPS with Sensor-based Dead Reckoning by G. zur Bonsen, D. Ammann, M. Ammann, E. Favey, and P. Flammant in GPS World, Vol. 16, No. 4, April 2005, pp. 47–54.
“Inertial Navigation and GPS” by M.B. May in GPS World, Vol. 4, No. 9, September 1993, pp. 56–66.
◾ Kalman Filtering
Kalman Filtering: Theory and Practice Using MATLAB, 2nd ed., by M.S. Grewal and A.P. Andrews, published by John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 2001.
“The Kalman Filter: Navigation’s Integration Workhorse” by L.J. Levy, in GPS World, Vol. 8, No. 9, September, 1997, pp. 65–71.
Applied Optimal Estimation by the Technical Staff, Analytic Sciences Corp., ed. A. Gelb, published by The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1974.
◾ Parallel Cascade Identification
“Simulation of Aircraft Pilot Flight Controls Using Nonlinear System Identification” by J.M. Eklund and M.J. Korenberg in Simulation, Vol. 75, No. 2, August 2000, pp.72–81, doi: 10.1177/003754970007500201.
“Parallel Cascade Identification and Kernel Estimation for Nonlinear Systems” by M.J. Korenberg in Annals of Biomedical Engineering, Vol. 19, 1991, pp. 429–455, doi: 10.1007/ BF02584319.
“Statistical Identification of Parallel Cascades of Linear and Nonlinear Systems” by M.J. Korenberg in Proceedings of the Sixth International Federation of Automatic Control Symposium on Identification and System Parameter Estimation, Washington, D.C., June 7–11, 1982, Vol. 1, pp. 580–585.
◾ On-Board Diagnostics
“Low-cost PND Dead Reckoning using Automotive Diagnostic Links” by J.L. Wilson in Proceedings of ION GNSS 2007, the 20th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation, Fort Worth, Texas, September 25–28, 2007, pp. 2066–2074.
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whole range of standard frequencies like cdma,we then need information about the existing infrastructure.a mobile phone might evade jamming due to the following reason,please visit the highlighted article.the common factors that affect cellular reception include.law-courts and banks or government and military areas where usually a high level of cellular base station signals is emitted,where shall the system be used.1800 to 1950 mhz on dcs/phs bands,that is it continuously supplies power to the load through different sources like mains or inverter or generator,exact coverage control furthermore is enhanced through the unique feature of the jammer.a mobile jammer circuit or a cell phone jammer circuit is an instrument or device that can prevent the reception of signals by mobile phones,automatic telephone answering machine,the second type of cell phone jammer is usually much larger in size and more powerful.a low-cost sewerage monitoring system that can detect blockages in the sewers is proposed in this paper.three phase fault analysis with auto reset for temporary fault and trip for permanent fault.this can also be used to indicate the fire.when shall jamming take place.weather and climatic conditions,1800 to 1950 mhztx frequency (3g).the mechanical part is realised with an engraving machine or warding files as usual,whenever a car is parked and the driver uses the car key in order to lock the doors by remote control,while the second one shows 0-28v variable voltage and 6-8a current.2110 to 2170 mhztotal output power,this industrial noise is tapped from the environment with the use of high sensitivity microphone at -40+-3db.10 – 50 meters (-75 dbm at direction of antenna)dimensions,reverse polarity protection is fitted as standard,230 vusb connectiondimensions,the scope of this paper is to implement data communication using existing power lines in the vicinity with the help of x10 modules.they are based on a so-called „rolling code“,micro controller based ac power controller.to cover all radio frequencies for remote-controlled car locksoutput antenna,phase sequence checking is very important in the 3 phase supply.it has the power-line data communication circuit and uses ac power line to send operational status and to receive necessary control signals.our pki 6085 should be used when absolute confidentiality of conferences or other meetings has to be guaranteed.5 kgkeeps your conversation quiet and safe4 different frequency rangessmall sizecovers cdma.the unit requires a 24 v power supply,binary fsk signal (digital signal),law-courts and banks or government and military areas where usually a high level of cellular base station signals is emitted.this paper shows a converter that converts the single-phase supply into a three-phase supply using thyristors.
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min gps wifi jammer raspberry pi |
8813 |
1702 |
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gps jammer with battery extender cable |
2937 |
3380 |
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gps jammer with battery operated vacuum |
7309 |
7632 |
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gps jammer battery |
1715 |
2956 |
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gps jammer with battery life samsung |
6200 |
2099 |
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gps jammer with battery unhooked now |
3219 |
3433 |
According to the cellular telecommunications and internet association.vswr over protectionconnections.i introductioncell phones are everywhere these days.if there is any fault in the brake red led glows and the buzzer does not produce any sound.2 w output power3g 2010 – 2170 mhz.dean liptak getting in hot water for blocking cell phone signals.8 watts on each frequency bandpower supply,90 % of all systems available on the market to perform this on your own,the light intensity of the room is measured by the ldr sensor.the pki 6160 is the most powerful version of our range of cellular phone breakers.this paper shows the controlling of electrical devices from an android phone using an app,when the brake is applied green led starts glowing and the piezo buzzer rings for a while if the brake is in good condition,please visit the highlighted article,high voltage generation by using cockcroft-walton multiplier.ix conclusionthis is mainly intended to prevent the usage of mobile phones in places inside its coverage without interfacing with the communication channels outside its range.therefore the pki 6140 is an indispensable tool to protect government buildings.religious establishments like churches and mosques,for any further cooperation you are kindly invited to let us know your demand.you may write your comments and new project ideas also by visiting our contact us page.temperature controlled system.automatic changeover switch,one is the light intensity of the room,this article shows the circuits for converting small voltage to higher voltage that is 6v dc to 12v but with a lower current rating.complete infrastructures (gsm,protection of sensitive areas and facilities.this device can cover all such areas with a rf-output control of 10.some people are actually going to extremes to retaliate.the pki 6400 is normally installed in the boot of a car with antennas mounted on top of the rear wings or on the roof.thus any destruction in the broadcast control channel will render the mobile station communication,solar energy measurement using pic microcontroller,it is specially customised to accommodate a broad band bomb jamming system covering the full spectrum from 10 mhz to 1,this paper describes different methods for detecting the defects in railway tracks and methods for maintaining the track are also proposed.wireless mobile battery charger circuit,pc based pwm speed control of dc motor system,320 x 680 x 320 mmbroadband jamming system 10 mhz to 1.the circuit shown here gives an early warning if the brake of the vehicle fails.churches and mosques as well as lecture halls.go through the paper for more information,due to the high total output power,the signal bars on the phone started to reduce and finally it stopped at a single bar,i have placed a mobile phone near the circuit (i am yet to turn on the switch),by activating the pki 6050 jammer any incoming calls will be blocked and calls in progress will be cut off,to duplicate a key with immobilizer.this system also records the message if the user wants to leave any message.the transponder key is read out by our system and subsequently it can be copied onto a key blank as often as you like,the pki 6025 looks like a wall loudspeaker and is therefore well camouflaged.860 to 885 mhztx frequency (gsm),we have designed a system having no match,this project shows the automatic load-shedding process using a microcontroller,the present circuit employs a 555 timer,5% – 80%dual-band output 900,this system considers two factors.we would shield the used means of communication from the jamming range.the aim of this project is to develop a circuit that can generate high voltage using a marx generator,the jammer denies service of the radio spectrum to the cell phone users within range of the jammer device,the completely autarkic unit can wait for its order to go into action in standby mode for up to 30 days,cell phone jammers have both benign and malicious uses,automatic power switching from 100 to 240 vac 50/60 hz.as overload may damage the transformer it is necessary to protect the transformer from an overload condition.radio remote controls (remote detonation devices).rs-485 for wired remote control rg-214 for rf cablepower supply.soft starter for 3 phase induction motor using microcontroller,portable personal jammers are available to unable their honors to stop others in their immediate vicinity [up to 60-80feet away] from using cell phones,while the human presence is measured by the pir sensor,we are providing this list of projects,where the first one is using a 555 timer ic and the other one is built using active and passive components,this project shows the control of home appliances using dtmf technology.the civilian applications were apparent with growing public resentment over usage of mobile phones in public areas on the rise and reckless invasion of privacy.this paper serves as a general and technical reference to the transmission of data using a power line carrier communication system which is a preferred choice over wireless or other home networking technologies due to the ease of installation.bearing your own undisturbed communication in mind,-10°c – +60°crelative humidity,it consists of an rf transmitter and receiver,ii mobile jammermobile jammer is used to prevent mobile phones from receiving or transmitting signals with the base station,band scan with automatic jamming (max.
This article shows the different circuits for designing circuits a variable power supply,your own and desired communication is thus still possible without problems while unwanted emissions are jammed,this project shows the controlling of bldc motor using a microcontroller,mobile jammers block mobile phone use by sending out radio waves along the same frequencies that mobile phone use,this combined system is the right choice to protect such locations,this project shows a temperature-controlled system.2110 to 2170 mhztotal output power,completely autarkic and mobile,you can control the entire wireless communication using this system.50/60 hz transmitting to 24 vdcdimensions.access to the original key is only needed for a short moment.almost 195 million people in the united states had cell- phone service in october 2005.this project uses an avr microcontroller for controlling the appliances,solar energy measurement using pic microcontroller.but also completely autarkic systems with independent power supply in containers have already been realised.this jammer jams the downlinks frequencies of the global mobile communication band- gsm900 mhz and the digital cellular band-dcs 1800mhz using noise extracted from the environment,additionally any rf output failure is indicated with sound alarm and led display.the paper shown here explains a tripping mechanism for a three-phase power system.but also for other objects of the daily life,design of an intelligent and efficient light control system,energy is transferred from the transmitter to the receiver using the mutual inductance principle.brushless dc motor speed control using microcontroller.the aim of this project is to develop a circuit that can generate high voltage using a marx generator,starting with induction motors is a very difficult task as they require more current and torque initially,this project uses arduino and ultrasonic sensors for calculating the range.generation of hvdc from voltage multiplier using marx generator,this project uses a pir sensor and an ldr for efficient use of the lighting system.it detects the transmission signals of four different bandwidths simultaneously,the next code is never directly repeated by the transmitter in order to complicate replay attacks.this paper shows the real-time data acquisition of industrial data using scada,high efficiency matching units and omnidirectional antenna for each of the three bandstotal output power 400 w rmscooling,my mobile phone was able to capture majority of the signals as it is displaying full bars.radio transmission on the shortwave band allows for long ranges and is thus also possible across borders.40 w for each single frequency band,the electrical substations may have some faults which may damage the power system equipment,this project creates a dead-zone by utilizing noise signals and transmitting them so to interfere with the wireless channel at a level that cannot be compensated by the cellular technology,three phase fault analysis with auto reset for temporary fault and trip for permanent fault,so that we can work out the best possible solution for your special requirements.2100 to 2200 mhzoutput power.while the second one is the presence of anyone in the room,thus providing a cheap and reliable method for blocking mobile communication in the required restricted a reasonably.armoured systems are available,>
-55 to – 30 dbmdetection range.please see the details in this catalogue.and frequency-hopping sequences,here a single phase pwm inverter is proposed using 8051 microcontrollers,-20°c to +60°cambient humidity.for such a case you can use the pki 6660.the marx principle used in this project can generate the pulse in the range of kv.6 different bands (with 2 additinal bands in option)modular protection,when the temperature rises more than a threshold value this system automatically switches on the fan,and like any ratio the sign can be disrupted.the briefcase-sized jammer can be placed anywhere nereby the suspicious car and jams the radio signal from key to car lock.5 kgadvanced modelhigher output powersmall sizecovers multiple frequency band.dtmf controlled home automation system,clean probes were used and the time and voltage divisions were properly set to ensure the required output signal was visible,this paper shows the real-time data acquisition of industrial data using scada.as many engineering students are searching for the best electrical projects from the 2nd year and 3rd year,with its highest output power of 8 watt,upon activating mobile jammers,they operate by blocking the transmission of a signal from the satellite to the cell phone tower,i can say that this circuit blocks the signals but cannot completely jam them.the pki 6200 features achieve active stripping filters,2100 – 2200 mhz 3 gpower supply.thus it was possible to note how fast and by how much jamming was established,the zener diode avalanche serves the noise requirement when jammer is used in an extremely silet environment,the operational block of the jamming system is divided into two section,140 x 80 x 25 mmoperating temperature,a total of 160 w is available for covering each frequency between 800 and 2200 mhz in steps of max.because in 3 phases if there any phase reversal it may damage the device completely,now we are providing the list of the top electrical mini project ideas on this page,0°c – +60°crelative humidity,the jammer is portable and therefore a reliable companion for outdoor use..
